Julian built a solid foundation for the successes he had as Caesar. It was not by sheer luck that he managed to beat back the barbarians in Gaul. But to understand the reasons for his success, we have to look at the habits of the man. How did he live? How did he use his newfound power? How did he use his time? Not only do these questions reveal the reasons for his success, they also reveal personality of the man.

Spartan Habits

The duties of Caesar weighed heavily upon the shoulders of Julian, but he was determined to do a good job. Although he had access to food, drink and comfort that was befitting his station, he cared little for them. Instead, he shunned delicacies and shared the same food and drink as his soldiers. He also shunned comfort when it came to rest. Julian did not sleep on a bed of silk but made do with a rug and a coarse blanket.

The actions of Julian must have endeared him to his troops. Not many leaders were willing to share the same hardships as their men. This behaviour had many examples throughout the ages and in various parts of the world. Many commanders believed that they were better than the men they led. As such, they ate better food and had better sleeping arrangements under the pretext of leading their armies better. Meanwhile, their men who did most of the fighting suffered great hardships. By shunning comforts, Julian made it clear to his men that he shared their lot. Thus, they were more willing to follow and to die for him.

Daily Routine

As Caesar, Julian led a lifestyle of strict discipline to fulfil his duties. He had high expectations of himself and did not take his position lightly. During the day, he trained with his army to ensure that everyone was in top fighting condition. The severity of the barbarian threat in Gaul left no room to be lax. At any moment, the barbarians could attack the Romans. Until Julian pacified Gaul, there would be no peace.

But brute force alone would not bring lasting peace to Gaul. Julian realized that he had to win the hearts and minds of the people as well. Thus, he devoted his time to reforms in his administration to make it more efficient. He streamlined it and did his best to root out corruption. Where tax and tributes were concerned, he made sure to take measures that benefitted the poor.

Finally, Julian had to handle many appeals from the common people. As Caesar, he was the highest authority in the West. The common people looked to him to stand up for them and to redress their wrongs. In the judgments he meted out, Julian tried to be impartial. Where he felt it was necessary, he did not hesitate to adjust the punishment to fit the crime. Due to the mildness of his nature, he generally showed mercy where he could, believing it his duty to temper the law with clemency. This did not please everyone, but Julian focused on doing what he felt was right. He knew the weight of his decisions and the irreversibility of sentencing a man to death. While Julian ruled, mercy and mildness characterized his reign.

Nightly Routine

The many duties that Julian had kept him busy all day. But even night did not bring rest and relaxation for him. Often, he had to deal with state affairs long after the sun had set. To manage, Julian divided the time he had each night into three parts. The first part he dedicated to public matters. The second part he used for self-study. The last part he reserved for his much-needed rest. Most men would have found it hard to adhere to such a strict regimen. But Julian was not like most men. His willpower was so great that he could get by on a few hours of sleep and stick to the schedule he had set for himself.

Even though Julian loved learning, he placed his duties first. Only after he had seen to the public matters that needed his attention, did he allow himself to engage in his studies. Knowledge was Julian’s lifelong passion. Although he loved philosophy the most, he was prudent enough to devote his time and effort to other areas as well. These areas included poetry and rhetoric, history and Latin. His growth in knowledge and wisdom helped him to carry out his duties as Caesar more efficiently.

Reflections of the Vizier

Julian’s success as Caesar was due to hard work and abstinence from fun and pleasure. He devoted all his waking hours to his duties and used his free time to study. Although he had high expectations of his men, he had even higher expectations of himself. It is no wonder he attained his successes in Gaul.

Related posts:

1. How Barbarians Forced a Scholar to be a Caesar
2. How a scholar became Caesar

The Nature of Gallus

When Gallus became Caesar, he allowed his newfound wealth and power to go to his head. For ten odd years, he had been a prisoner, but now he was Caesar of the East. He was proud that he shared the same name as the emperor and was now a member of the imperial household. As Caesar, he viewed it as his right to do as he pleased. Worsening matters, he was quick to anger and had no mercy or compassion for his subjects. His reign soon degenerated into one of terror.

Gallus and Constantina

To assure Gallus’ loyalty to him, Constantius gave his younger sister Constantina to Gallus in marriage. Constantina was little better than her husband. As the proud sister of the emperor, she was born into a life of privilege. Naturally, she was also used to getting her way. Instead of restraining her husband, she encouraged and even helped him in his arbitrary rule. The couple cared little for the lives of their subjects and murdered as they pleased.

The Misdeeds of Gallus

The couple preferred to listen to rumours instead of verifying the facts. Against their enemies, they showed no mercy. Instead, they condemned innocent people to death on trumped up charges of black magic or for scheming to take the throne. Adding insult to injury, they made sure to take their victim’s possessions for themselves.

For instance, when a senator gave him well-meaning but blunt advice, Gallus flew into a petty rage. He went on to order the deaths of all the senators in Antioch. Then, when the people of Antioch asked him to deal with the famine, Gallus ignored their pleas. Instead, he blamed the famine on the incompetence of Theophilus, the Governor of Syria. The angry mob tore the innocent man to pieces.

To monitor his domains, the Caesar had spies in all parts of the land. These spies infiltrated the noble houses and brought back intelligence to keep him ahead of his perceived enemies. Through his spy network, the Caesar was privy to all kinds of private conversations. An atmosphere of distrust soon grew amongst the people. They had to watch their words and could not trust anyone, as they might be spies for the Caesar. Gallus even enjoyed travelling incognito amongst his people and asking them what they thought of the Caesar. A wrong answer would only lead to trouble for the unsuspecting victim.

Constantius Moves Against Gallus

When Constantius made Gallus Caesar, the threat Magnentius posed weighed heavily on his mind. So, he did not expect Gallus to rule as badly as he did. But when he heard reports of Gallus’ misrule and how he had alienated the people in the process, Constantius decided to act.

Firstly, he reduced Gallus’ power by taking away part of his troops. The excuse he gave was that too many restless troops would turn on Gallus himself. Secondly, he made Domitian Praetorian Prefect with orders to lure Gallus to Italy. But things did not go as planned. Domitian foolishly offended Gallus with his haughty speech and manner. In his anger, Gallus incited his troops to kill Domitian and Montius, a Quaestor who also angered the Caesar. The killings soon got out of hand and many innocent people lost their lives.

Constantius Executes Gallus

By now, Gallus was completely out of hand. Due to the way he alienated the people with his reign of terror, a revolt was imminent if he remained as Caesar. After careful discussions with his advisors, Constantius summoned Gallus to Milan under the pretext of urgent business. To allay the suspicions of Gallus, the emperor also sent for his sister. But Constantina died along the way before she could reach Milan.

Without his wife to shield him, Gallus became afraid that Constantius would kill him for his misdeeds. But Constantius managed to cajole Gallus with lies and sweet words into thinking he would forgive him for anything. When the Caesar had travelled far from his base of power, Constantius’ troops captured him without any trouble. During a quick trial, Gallus blamed his misdeeds on Constantina. Seeing that such an ungrateful and unrepentant person would only cause him trouble, Constantius executed him in 354.

Taking Action

Had Gallus been a better ruler, Constantius would have had no reason to order his death. But instead of ruling well, Gallus caused great unrest in the east with his reign of terror. An internal revolt would only leave the empire open to attacks from the Persians. Also, as Gallus became more bold and unhinged, he would one day challenge Constantius for the throne as well. With these matters weighing heavily on his mind, Constantius executed the cousin he had made Caesar.

References

Marcellinus, Ammianus. The Later Roman Empire: A.D. 354-378 (Penguin Classics). Translated by Walter Hamilton. England: Penguin Books, 2004.

Norwich, John Julius. Byzantium: The Early Centuries. England: Penguin Books, 1990.

Related posts:

1. Dissension Amongst the Sons of Constantine
2. How a scholar became Caesar

Limited Power

On November 6, 355, the twenty-four year old Julian became Caesar of the Western Roman Empire. Although he did not wish to be Caesar, he made up his mind to do a good job. After his coronation was over, he set off for Vienna to assume command. But along the way, he was appalled to learn that barbarian troops had destroyed Cologne, a major city in Germany. Despite the gladness with which the people of Vienna received him, Julian was in no mood to celebrate.

Due to his youth and inexperience, Julian’s chief military and civil officers took orders from Constantius himself. The emperor wanted to make sure that his cousin made the best choices in ruling and war. At the same time, he also wanted to prevent Julian from turning against him or causing a mess like Gallus did. These measures did not daunt Julian. He set out to learn all he could about being Caesar and soon proved that he was good one.

The Successes of Julian

The fall of Cologne drove home the severity of the barbarian threat to Julian. Not wanting to waste any time, he spent the winter of 355 in Vienna learning the ropes and laying his plans. Soon, Julian learned of an attack on the city of Autun. Although the city survived the onslaught, the barbarians were likely to try again. Instead of waiting, Julian decided to take the fight to the barbarians and to gain experience in battle. After careful preparations, the Caesar and his troops reached Autun on June 24.

Upon arrival, Julian held a war council with his generals to discuss their course of action. Aware that the barbarians threatened the city of Troyes, most of the generals advised caution. They preferred to take a safe route in relieving the city. But Julian had other ideas. Although this was his first war council, he displayed a preference for boldness, creativity and speed. Upon learning of a dangerous route through the dark woods that would give him the element of surprise, Julian went ahead with this suggestion.

Despite objections, the Caesar set off with a small but speedy force through the woods where he came upon the barbarians. A fierce battle ensued. The barbarians hurled their superior numbers at Julian’s troops with all their might. But despite their ferocious onslaught, they could not break Julian’s army. Soon, the barbarians lost heart and fled. Julian allowed them to leave because he knew his armoured troops could not catch them.

Having relieved Troyes, Julian rested his troops for a short while before heading for Reims to meet up with his main force. From there, Julian managed to defeat the Alamanni and the Germans while going on the retake more towns in Gaul. The most important city that Julian retook was Cologne. To buy time, he forced the Franks to accept a peace treaty. This gave him a chance to rebuild the devastated city.

The Problems Julian Faced

The campaign season ended with the approach of winter in 356. Julian could look back on his first campaign with satisfaction. Firstly, he had gained hands on experience in battle. Secondly, he had racked up a string of successes against the barbarians due to his boldness and speed. After leaving instructions for the rebuilding of Cologne, he dispersed part of his forces to various towns to gather supplies. Having done so, he left for the town of Sens.

The lull in the fighting did not mean rest for Julian. He still had to sort out the various problems he faced. Firstly, there was the issue of deserters. The town garrisons had fled their posts in the face of the barbarian onslaught. How was he going to entice them to return? Secondly, he had to consider the problem of the barbarians. Knowing that the empire was weak, the barbarians banded together to plunder the land. How was he to defeat them all? Lastly, Julian had to find a way to supply his forces as he split them up to deal with the various threats. Without a proper logistical solution, his troops faced certain defeat.

The Siege of Sens

As Julian mulled over his problems, the barbarians learned that he had few troops at Sens. Not wanting to miss this chance, they besieged the town hoping to capture it and the young Caesar. Despite the surprise, Julian kept his cool. He closed the gates and directed his small force to defend the walls. Due to the severity of the situation, he had to get the citizens to help in repairs for the damage done to the walls.

Throughout the siege, Julian worked hard to encourage his men to hold out. Thanks to his boundless energy, the barbarians failed to breach the walls and gave up after a month of trying. The narrow escape reminded Julian once more of the barbarian threat. Due to their frequent raids, the land, crops and property lay in ruins. Famine would set in soon if Julian did nothing about the matter. Thankfully, the energetic young Caesar had plans to address the issues and the support of his men to carry out his ideas. But before he could tackle the threat, he gave his men a short rest to recover from the siege.

Reflections of the Vizier

Julian proved he was not a mere scholar. During the first year of his ascension as Caesar, he had learned to govern and fight in battle. The threat that the barbarians posed forced him to learn quickly. Due to his boldness and speed, he managed to score a few victories against the barbarians and retook some towns in the process. His successes earned him the respect of his troops who were more eager to follow his plans. The scholar whom no one expected to succeed was coming into his own.

References

Marcellinus, Ammianus. The Later Roman Empire: A.D. 354-378 (Penguin Classics). Translated by Walter Hamilton. England: Penguin Books, 2004.

Norwich, John Julius. Byzantium: The Early Centuries. England: Penguin Books, 1990.

Related posts:

1. How a scholar became Caesar
2. The Personality of Julian the Apostate

Julian’s Background

Julian was born the son of Julius Constantius. His father was the son of the Emperor Constantius Chlorus and his second wife Theodora. This made him half-brother to Constantine the Great. When Constantine came to power, he made his mother Helena an empress. Due to Helena’s dislike for Theodora and her family, Julius had to keep a low profile. Thus the greater part of Julius’ life was spent in obscurity.

When Helena died, Constantine sent for Julius and his family to stay in Constantinople. By this time, Julius had a second wife by the name of Basilina. Following them were two sons and a daughter from his earlier marriage. The family settled happily in the new capital and soon, Julian was born in 332. Sadly, Basilina died shortly after giving birth to him. Despite her death, life had to go on. Constantine showed great favour to Julius by giving him high positions in his court. As such, Julius was able to give his large brood a proper upbringing, getting the best nurses and tutors for them. But this peaceful existence did not last.

Massacre of 337

In 337, Constantine the Great died. Following in the wake of his death was the struggle for the throne. Constantius II, the son of Constantine, was eager to wipe out potential rivals. Under a false pretext, he ordered the deaths of his father’s half-brothers and their families. Imperial troops executed Julius and his eldest son. But Constantius spared the five-year-old Julian and his older half-brother, Gallus, due to their young age.

The massacre left a deep impact on Julian. In the blink of an eye, for no apparent reason, he lost his father and older brother. As he grew older and learned the truth of the massacre, he could not help but hate his cousin. Yet he was not in a position to do anything for the moment. Survival came first.

The Early Upbringing of Julian

Although Constantius had spared the lives of Gallus and Julian, they were a nuisance to him. He decided that the best way to deal with the brothers was to send them off to Nicomedia to study. There the Bishop Eusebius would take care of and educate them. Thus, Christian teachings shaped the early years of Julian’s life.

In his eleventh year, Julian’s life underwent another upheaval. The emperor sent Julian and Gallus to Macellum as a safety measure. There, in the ancient palace, cut off from the rest of the world, the brothers had little to do but study. It was during this period that Julian stumbled upon classical literature. This began a lifelong interest that would define his worldview.

In 349, after six years at Macellum, Constantius allowed the brothers to return to Constantinople. There their paths diverged. Gallus would go on to serve in the imperial court. As for Julian, he had discovered his passion for learning. Bent on the pursuit of knowledge, he asked for and gained the permission to further his studies. Constantius did not think that a bookworm could do him much harm.

Julian the Philosopher

During the next six years, Julian roamed the Greek world. In his quest for knowledge, he visited the various philosophical schools and sought out the best thinkers of his day. Day and night, he read and engaged in discourses. Soon he heard of Libanius, a famous pagan philosopher and he set off to Nicomedia to learn from him.

By this time, Julian had begun to favour the classical teachings over the Christian ones. When one of his former Christian tutors learned of his admiration for Libanius, he became alarmed. To save the soul of his wayward pupil, he made Julian promise not to attend Libanius’ lectures. Julian kept his word by paying someone to copy the lectures for him.

From Nicomedia, he travelled to Pergamum, then to Ephesus and finally he reached Athens. Somewhere along the way, Julian made the fateful choice to turn his back on Christianity. This was not a decision made on a whim. Julian was too deep a thinker to make haphazard choices. He had come to realize that he did not agree with Christian teachings. In its place, he embraced the old Pagan ways that appealed to him on a spiritual level. But despite his conviction, he had to keep his religious views to himself. Christianity was on the rise while paganism was on the decline. If word got out of his views, he would face grave consequences.

The Reluctant Caesar

In late 355, at the age of 23, Julian learned that Constantius intended to make him Caesar. By now, the future Caesar was a grown man. Stocky in build and plain looking, he was socially awkward and shy. The way he carried himself did nothing to inspire confidence in others. Furthermore, he did not wish to rule. All he wanted in life was to learn. But he had no choice. He had to leave Athens for Milan to meet Constantius.

At Milan, Constantius informed Julian he was to rule as Caesar. After the needed personal grooming to look the part of a Caesar, Julian appeared before the troops on November 6. Constantius gave a short speech as he presented Julian to those present. There, despite his reluctance, Julian received the acclamation of the troops as their new Caesar. Constantius also married his sister Helena to Julian to bind him to his household. For his part, Julian was fulsome in his praise of Constantius. Although he hated the murderer of his family, he had no choice but to submit for now.

Reflections of the Vizier

Despite trying to stay away from the throne, the throne found Julian. For years, he had kept a low profile and immersed himself in study. He did so because it was his passion. But fate would not leave Julian alone. After the execution of his brother Gallus, Julian was the best choice that Constantius had left as Caesar. Even though Julian tried to live the life of a scholar, fate called upon him to be Caesar. Julian would go on to prove he was a dynamic one.

References

Norwich, John Julius. Byzantium: The Early Centuries. England: Penguin Books, 1990.

Related posts:

1. How Barbarians Forced a Scholar to be a Caesar
2. The Personality of Julian the Apostate

The Massacre of 337

When Constantine the Great died in 337, his son Constantius II was closest to the capital. Upon learning the news, he returned at once to Constantinople to preside over the funeral. A skilled actor, Constantius put on a convincing show of mourning with his brothers. But as soon as they laid Constantine to rest in his tomb, the peace was over. On September 9, Constantine II, Constantius II and Constans had their coronation as joint emperors. The struggle to consolidate their power began almost at once.

The first victims were the half-brothers of Constantine. Rumours spread that they had poisoned the emperor to seize the throne. As a filial son, Constantius had these traitors executed along with their families. But the murders did not stop there. Constantine’s brothers-in-law also met with gruesome ends. Only three young boys survived the massacre, likely due to their tender ages.

The Settlement

With their potential rivals out of the way, the three emperors met in the summer of 338 to carve up the empire. For the sake of simplicity, the brothers agreed to carry on ruling the domains they had while they were Caesars. There were a few minor tweaks to the boundaries, but for now, the former divisions remained mostly unchanged. The eldest brother Constantine took Britain, Gaul and Spain. The middle brother Constantius got Asia Minor and Egypt. Meanwhile, the youngest brother Constans, who was only 15 years of age, retained control over Africa, Italy, the Danube, Macedonia and Thrace. Due to Constans’ age, Constantine served as his guardian until he was ready to rule alone.

The Rise and Fall of Constans II

Peace between the brothers did not last long. It could not hope to last when each of the brothers wanted the empire for himself. Constantine struck first. He could not tolerate the fact that his youngest brother would not fall in line and submit to his wishes. In 340, he attacked Constans in a bid to assert control over him. This led Constans to ally with Constantius against Constantine. Meanwhile, Constans set an ambush that took and killed Constantine by surprise. With his eldest brother out of the way, the balance of power changed. Constans was now the supreme ruler of the West.

However, Constans was merely 17. Although he led a few successful campaigns in the early years of his reign, he soon neglected his duties. Being young and impressionable, he chose to indulge in wanton pleasures instead. He went so far as to enjoy himself with his blonde German prisoners who liked the hedonistic lifestyle he led. But his critical mistake was to lose the respect of the soldiers that served him.

Thus in early 350, while Constans was away hunting, the disgruntled troops revolted and proclaimed Magnentius their new emperor. A Briton by birth, Magnentius was a pagan in his beliefs. But as an emperor, he was decisive. He quickly issued orders to have Constans killed. With little support, Constans soon met his end while fleeing for his life. Thus in less than a decade, the control of the West changed hands again.

Constantius vs Magnentius

Of the sons of Constantine, only Constantius remained. During these years, Constantius had his hands full with the Persians in the East. When he learned of Magnentius’ revolt, he had to move against the usurper. As the sole son of Constantine, no one else but he had the right to rule the empire.

But before he could move west, he had to resolve the defence against the Persians. To deal with this matter, he made his cousin Gallus Caesar of the East and tasked him with this responsibility. Gallus had the good fortune to survive the massacre that happened in 337. To bind Gallus closer to him, Constantius married his widowed sister Constantina to him.

With his eastern frontier secured, Constantius clashed with Magnentius in September 351. Although Constantius won the Battle of Mursa Major, both sides suffered heavy losses. After his defeat, Magnentius escaped from Croatia back to Northern Italy to regroup. But fortune did not favour Magnentius. After two years of struggling, he had nothing to show for his efforts. Unable to watch any further as he lost support and territory to Constantius, he took his own life. Now that Magnentius was gone, Constantius was the ruler of the reunited empire.

The Caesar Julian

While campaigning in the west, Constantius received reports about Gallus that disturbed him. Due to his suspicions, he summoned Gallus to a meeting and had him executed to pre-empt any potential revolt. With Gallus out of the way, Constantius was truly the supreme ruler of the empire. But he could not manage alone. The size of the empire made it an impossible feat. In the end, he decided to appoint his last living male relative Julian, as Caesar and married his younger sister Helena to him.

Reflections of the Vizier

Constantius II was the sole surviving son of Constantine the Great. In a time of chaos and uncertainty, he had the good fortune to be in the right place at the right time. Although he was responsible for the massacre of his relatives, he had less opportunistic rivals to contend with as a result. Other rivals like Magnentius had a weaker claim to the throne. They could not hope to last long if the soldiers did not support them. For now, Constantius enjoyed the fruits of his labour and remained safely in power.

References

Norwich, John Julius. Byzantium: The Early Centuries. England: Penguin Books, 1990.

Related posts:

1. Why Constantius II Executed Gallus

Impact on the People

With war, there is famine, disease and suffering. Decades of fighting led to the deaths of many people in Italy. As a result, there were less people to work the fields or rebuild the land. Those that managed to survive became refugees and suffered great hardships. The war destroyed their homes and so they had to manage as best as they could. Many chose to settle elsewhere rather than to return to their devastated homeland. The reduced population of Italy affected the economy badly.

Impact on Economy

Much of Italy’s wealth came from its land. During the reign of the Goths, the rich landowners watched their estates thrive. But after the war, the rich landowners owned charred fields that had little value. Fighting had left everything in ruins. Most of the wealth derived from the land was lost. On the one hand, there were fewer people to work the fields. On the other hand, the land was too devastated to grow anything. Under the reign of Justinian, the wealth of Italy declined greatly due to his campaigns. Things got so bad that Pope Pelagius had to beg for financial aid from Gaul and Africa.

Impact of Justinian’s Restoration Attempts

Since a war torn Italy would do him no good, Justinian did his best to rebuild the land. In the process, he made significant changes. Firstly, there was no more Emperor of the West. Secondly, he did away with many major posts that the Goths had maintained. Thirdly, he appointed his own officials to vital positions instead of the native Italians. These officials reported directly to Constantinople. Although there were Italian bishops, Justinian saw fit to place his own men in key positions as well. Clearly, Justinian did not trust the Italians to run their land for fear that they might rebel against him. As a result, Italy slowly declined in importance.

Impact on Learning

Decades of war led to the decline of intellectual life in Italy. With all the chaos going on, there was no chance or place for intellectual pursuits to flourish. With the death and migration of many of Italy’s learned men, few remained to teach the younger generation. Thus, by the time Justinian conquered the peninsula, the people who survived could barely spell.

Impact on Security

Justinian achieved his aims of retaking Italy and destroying the Goths. But in doing so, he created another problem. His wars left Italy vulnerable to other barbarian tribes like the Franks and the Lombards. The Lombards had served under Narses during his campaign against the Goths. But he dismissed them after defeating Totila because they were too hard to control. Having served in the Gothic wars, the Lombards were well aware of Italy’s weakness. Thus, they patiently waited for the right moment to invade the land again.

Reflections of the Vizier

Due to Justinian’s ambitions, Italy suffered death and destruction. But there was no stability or prosperity after he retook the land either. He simply did not have the power to defend his Italian possessions from the other barbarian threats they faced. This led to more invasions and destruction that plunged Italy into the Dark Ages.

References

Moorhead, John. Justinian. New York: Addison Wesley Longman Limited, 1997.

Norwich, John Julius. Byzantium: The Early Centuries. England: Penguin Books, 1990.

Related posts:

1. How Narses Conquered Italy
2. How Justinian Revived Gothic Italy (part 1)
3. Why Belisarius Failed to Retake Italy (part 1)

Totila’s Gothic Kingdom

When Belisarius left Italy in 549, effective resistance from the Byzantines slowly collapsed against the Gothic onslaught. On January 16, 550, Totila retook Rome with help from the inside. Once again, the faithless Isaurian troops allowed the Goths to enter the city. This time however, Totila made Rome a permanent part of his domains. He got his troops to reside in the city along with their families. Next, he had the city rebuilt and the Senate restored. Then he appealed to the former citizens to return to their homes. To strengthen his authority in Italy, the Gothic king hosted the Games in the Circus Maximus as if he were the emperor himself. But that was not all. He also ordered his fleet to raid the coasts of Byzantine Italy and Sicily. On the one hand, the rich plunder from the raids enhanced the Gothic treasury in the ongoing war effort. On the other hand, it weakened the Byzantines financially.

The Premature Demise of Germanus

The repeated blows to his pride and prestige finally spurred Justinian to give his full focus to the Gothic question. His answer was to send his cousin Germanus to retake Italy. It was a shrewd choice. Germanus was loyal and skilled in warfare. More importantly, his wife Matasuntha, was the granddaughter of the great Gothic king Theodoric. The emperor was counting on her to win the support of the Gothic nobility. As such, Germanus set off for Italy at the head of a large army. But before he could display his mettle, he died of a high fever at Sardica in the autumn of 550.

The Supreme Commander Narses

The death of Germanus stalled the war effort against the Goths. By this time, only four cities remained outside of Gothic control. They were Ravenna, Otranto, Ancona and Crotone. The situation was critical. If matters did not change soon, Totila would complete his conquest of Italy. After careful thought, the emperor made his choice. He decided to entrust his advisor, the royal eunuch Narses, with the task of retaking Italy. Because eunuchs could not become emperors, Justinian had no qualms about giving Narses supreme command.

The Preparations of Narses

Despite being over seventy, Narses was resolute, forceful, influential and well loved. Having spent most of his life at the imperial court, he understood people and knew how to bend them to his will. It was true that Narses lacked experience in the art of war. But he had the support of all the Byzantine commanders in Italy. His presence would unite the high command in a way that Belisarius never could.

Aware of the daunting task before him, Narses asked for and received more troops from Justinian for the campaign. Composed mostly of barbarians, the army had around 30,000 men. In the spring of 551, the old eunuch and his army set off. But Narses did not head for Italy at once. Instead, he spent the rest of the year in Thrace and Illyria. There he gathered more troops and shaped them into an effective force that he could use. Narses had worked hard all his life for such an opportunity; he had to conquer Italy for his master.

Narses Invades Italy

In the summer of 552, Narses felt ready enough to confront Totila. He chose to march his troops by land, around the Adriatic Sea into Italy. His first stop was Ravenna. There he settled administrative matters and paid the troops who had not gone over to the Goths. Narses knew he had to secure the support of the remaining Byzantine strongholds if he wished to conquer Italy.

The Battle of Taginae

A week and a half later, Narses and his troops set off down the Via Flaminia to face the Goths. By then, Totila had already learned of Narses’ movements and marched his army up the same road to meet him. It was near the end of June when the Byzantines and Goths clashed at Taginae. In this crucial battle, both sides fought bravely with all their might. But in the end, the superior skill of Narses won the day. The Byzantine army smashed the Gothic one into pieces and sent them fleeing for their lives. Although Totila managed to escape, he died of his wounds at the village of Caprae.

The Aftermath of Taginae

With the death of Totila, the tide of war turned against the Goths. Even so, Gothic pride refused to give up. As their next king, the Goths chose Teia, the most courageous general of Totila, to lead them. The Goths however, did not rely on bravery alone to win. They turned to the Franks who were a significant power north of the river Po. Although the Frankish king accepted the gifts from the Gothic envoys, he remained vague about his aid. For the moment, the Goths had to fight on their own.

Meanwhile, Narses continued his march down the peninsula. By now, the Battle of Taginae and the death of Totila was common knowledge. To the people of Italy, the Goths were a waning power who could no longer protect them. Thus, city after city welcomed Narses and his troops to avoid bloodshed. Even Rome fell into the hands of the old eunuch after a brief siege.

The Final Battle

Even so, Narses continued his southward march. His target was the city of Cumae. Narses learned that Totila had stored a huge amount of gold in the city. If he could lay his hands on the gold, it would be of great use to the empire. Meanwhile Teia was also leading his army towards Cumae. He could not allow such riches to fall into the hands of the Byzantines.

Just before November 552 began, the two armies clashed near Vesuvius. The Goths knew that this battle would seal their fate. They fought with all their heart and soul but ultimately proved to be no match for the ably led Byzantines. Teia died heroically in the struggle. But even with his head on a pike for all to see, the Goths refused to surrender. The next day however, the surviving Goths agreed to negotiate or risk complete annihilation.

The End of the Goths

Since the victor determines the terms of peace, the Goths got the raw end of the deal. They had to leave Italy for good and stop fighting against the empire. In return, they could take all that they could carry and need not serve in the imperial army against their will. Those who wished to find their fortunes with the empire could of course do so.

Alarmed by the demise of the Gothic kingdom and the shift in the balance of power, the Franks invaded Italy. They also sent aid to the remaining Goths to divide the Byzantine forces. But despite Frankish aid, the Goths were too weak to resist for long. Cumae fell after a few months of siege. Only Verona and Brescia, north of the river Po remained in Gothic hands for another nine years. This was simply due to Narses having to defeat the Frankish invasion before he could conquer the cities in November 562. Finally, Justinian was the undisputed master of Italy.

Reflections of the Vizier

Despite his great age, Narses had done what Belisarius failed to achieve. He had conquered Italy for his master. A few factors led to this great victory. Firstly, Narses knew how to win the full support of Justinian. This allowed him to get more money, troops and resources than Belisarius ever had. Secondly, he knew how to win the support of his officers and men. This ensured that they carried out his orders to the letter. Belisarius always had his plans disrupted by disobedient officers. Lastly, he left nothing to chance. He made sure he could direct the battle at will by training his men until they could follow his commands well. In this manner, Narses assured his victory.

References

Moorhead, John. Justinian. New York: Addison Wesley Longman Limited, 1997.

Norwich, John Julius. Byzantium: The Early Centuries. England: Penguin Books, 1990.

Related posts:

1. How Justinian Revived Gothic Italy (part 1)
2. Why Belisarius Failed to Retake Italy (part 1)
3. Impact of Justinian’s War on Italy

Who was Procopius?

Procopius of Caesarea was a learned scholar from Palestine. Trained in law, he served as the legal advisor of the great general Belisarius from 527 onwards. This meant that Procopius was on hand to witness the major campaigns that took place during the reign of Justinian. He was with Belisarius at the Persian front and the wars in North Africa and Italy. He also witnessed the Nika Riots and the plague. In the early 540s, he settled down in Constantinople and did not return with Belisarius to Italy in 544. It is unclear when Procopius died or whether he was the same urban prefect of Constantinople who tried Belisarius in 562. But due to his status in the court and the social circles he belonged to, his writings is a vital source of information for the Age of Justinian. Procopius had access to and knew things that other historians could not.

The Official Works of Procopius

The most important work of Procopius was the Wars of Justinian that comprised of eight books. The first seven books covered the campaigns of Belisarius on the Persian front, in North Africa and in Italy. His last book finished the conquest of Italy under the eunuch Narses. The books also provided many details of the war that would have been lost to us otherwise. But that was not all. Procopius also gave an account of the events that happened such as the Nika Riots and the plague. His other work was on the Buildings of Justinian. Written to glorify his master, Procopius did just that. He even wrote about how his master gave his architects pointers to overcome the problems they faced.

Published during the lifetime of Justinian, these works cannot have contained the true feelings of Procopius. After all, he knew what he needed to write to please his master. He also knew the consequences if he chose to do otherwise. Thus for the sake of his life and career, he did what he had to do.

The Secret History of Procopius

Due to its shocking content, the Secret History or Anecdota, found greater and more lasting fame than either of the earlier two books. It portrayed the private lives of the imperial court in a very bad light. For example, Antonina, the wife of Belisarius, cuckolded him regularly with their godson. The Empress Theodora was a wanton whore during her younger days. And Justinian was a demon whose head could disappear.

The Secret History never saw the light of day during the lifetime of Justinian. Such a book would have gotten Procopius tortured and killed, for clearly he had an axe to grind. Given its shocking claims, it is hard to believe what he says. Still, we cannot dismiss the Secret History entirely. Even if it is not the whole truth, there must have been elements of truth involved. What is clear is the bitterness and hatred Procopius had for the court and its main actors.

Assessing Procopius

From the way Procopius wrote, we can easily discern a few things. Firstly, he was a man who knew how to bend with the times. Knowing the power of his patrons, he could easily write and say what they wanted to hear. This shows that he was a flexible man who knew how to survive. Secondly, he was clearly petty minded and a hypocrite. Justinian and the rest may have disappointed him somehow. But to get back at them through such a means clearly shows that he was not straightforward. Lastly, he was mean-spirited. As a historian, Procopius knew that future generations would rely on what he said to understand the events of his time. He obviously had this in mind when he wrote the Secret History. If he could not get his revenge on Justinian during their lifetime, he would do so for the rest of eternity.

Reflections of the Vizier

Despite the dubious character of Procopius, his works are still worth reading. The Wars and Buildings of Justinian provide us with a detailed account of the era witnessed firsthand by Procopius himself. It is true that he exaggerates and makes things up in the Secret History. But if you take it with a pinch of salt, it still makes for an enjoyable read. He may have been many things, but Procopius cannot be accused of being boring.

References

Bridge, Anthony. Theodora: Portrait in a Byzantine Landscape. Chicago: Academy Chicago Publishers, 1993.

Moorhead, John. Justinian. New York: Addison Wesley Longman Limited, 1997.

Related posts:

1. The Vengeance of Belisarius

The Well Informed Empress

Throughout her reign, the Empress Theodora relied on information from various sources to stay ahead of her enemies. Firstly, she had her own unofficial secret service of eunuchs, led by the loyal Narses who kept her informed. Secondly, she had the loyalty of her servants and ladies-in-waiting who took note of interesting events to update their mistress on. Thirdly, she had many friends who she had helped as a champion of women’s rights. These women were eager to bring her any news that might affect her interest. Lastly, the empress rewarded anyone who brought her any information, useful or not. She did this to encourage the public to keep on doing so. Thus, there was no one better informed than the empress.

Theodora Learns of John’s Ambitions

It was through her efficient spy network that Theodora learned of John’s activities. At first, she could not fathom why he was forming a political party to further his own interests. John enjoyed the favour of the emperor and already had great power. Shortly after, she learned of the prophecy of John’s ascension and the nasty rumours he spread about her. Putting the pieces together, Theodora realized that John wanted her out of the way, so that he could take the throne for himself. Aware of the threat he posed, she made it her mission in life to destroy John.

Failed Attempts

Although she was not on great terms with John, he noted the change in her behaviour towards him. Suspecting that she had found out about the rumours, John feared for his life. To pre-empt any assassination attempts, he hired more bodyguards to defend him. However, nothing happened as time passed and John began to relax his vigilance. What could Theodora do to him when he had the emperor’s favour? What John did not count on was her patience and cunning.

The empress was no fool. She would not make a blatant attempt on the life of her husband’s favourite. Instead, she worked persistently to remove the source of John’s power; the trust and favour that Justinian showed him. She began by pointing out that the actions of John were hurting the people. The great discontent he was causing would surely work against them and could very well lead to another riot. But Justinian refused to remove such a talented official from power.

Next, the empress appealed to Justinian’s fears. John was growing more powerful with each day. It was only a matter of time before he plotted against the throne. If Justinian did not act to remove him now, it would be too late. Even so, Justinian refused to believe this since there was no evidence to show John’s ambitions.

The Hatred of Antonina

Undaunted, Theodora sought out Antonina, her close friend and protégé, for help. It was a wise choice. John envied and hated Belisarius, the husband of Antonina, for his fame and glory. At every given chance, John enjoyed putting down the great general. During the scandal between Antonina and her godson, John made such cutting remarks that he earned her lasting enmity. Despite her faults, Antonina would not allow anyone to insult her husband. Thus, she was more than willing to do the bidding of her mistress.

The Bait

As an ally, Antonina was cunning and a mistress of intrigue second only to Theodora herself. Both women agreed that the only way to destroy John was through his teenage daughter Euphemia. She was his only child whom he loved dearly. To shield her from the evils of the world, he kept her at home and carefully chose her tutors. One day, John went away for a long business trip. Seizing the moment, Antonina paid Euphemia a visit and struck up a friendship with her. Day by day, she slowly won the trust of the naive girl through sweet words and the sharing of scandalous stories about high society.

Then, Antonina revealed a deep secret. Her husband Belisarius hated the ungrateful emperor and empress for mistreating him. Leading the girl on, she shared that he could not rebel even though the army backed him. He would fail unless he had the support of a powerful courtier, like Euphemia’s father. Naively, the girl conveyed the message to her father. Blinded by his lust for power, John did not suspect a thing. Instead, he was elated. With the support of Belisarius and the army, the prophecy would come true at last. Not wanting to waste any time, he eagerly pushed for a meeting with Antonina.

Springing the Trap

Wisely, Antonina declined to meet him to lure him in further. She pointed out that it would be folly to meet in Constantinople given their status as the empress would learn of it soon enough. A few days later, she sent word to inform him that she was off to join her husband in Syria. If he still wished to discuss matters, they could meet at her husband’s villa near Chalcedon. Taken in by her show of prudence, John agreed to this arrangement. At this stage, Theodora, who was in on all that happened, promptly informed Justinian of the meeting.

Justinian was not open to the news. It was only with great reluctance, that he sent Narses, the royal eunuch and Marcellus, the captain of the guard, to Belisarius’s villa. They had orders to arrest and if need be kill him, if John dared to conspire against the throne.

On the appointed day, John made his way to Belisarius’s villa, with his guards, to meet Antonina. There she got him to declare that he would back a revolt aimed at overthrowing Justinian. At this point, Narses and Marcellus stepped out from hiding to arrest John for his disloyalty. Things would not go as planned. John was big, strong and skilled with a sword. He quickly called for his guards who clashed with the imperial troops. In the ensuing melee, John fled and headed straight for the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople to seek sanctuary. That move sealed his fate and proved his guilt. After years of scheming, Theodora had finally won and she quickly moved in to finish the kill.

The Fate of John

On the charge of high treason, John lost his titles, his offices and his fortune. Forced to join the clergy to renounce the throne, the newly ordained deacon headed to Cyzicus to live out his life in exile. But Theodora was not done with him. She felt that her husband had been too merciful. Soon, John found himself implicated in the murder of the Bishop of Cyzicus. During the review of the murder, the commission found him guilty, had him beaten and sent to prison in Egypt with only a rough cloak. Along the way, John even had to beg for food. Rumour had it that Theodora was responsible for his plight.

John languished in prison until Theodora’s death in 548. Only then did Justinian summon him to the capital. Upon his arrival, John learned that he would never return to power. With no alternative, he decided to devote his life to God instead. He worked hard to become a priest since he was already a deacon. But during the initiation, he was so poor that he could not even afford a decent cassock. Thankfully, a monk was willing to lend him one. As fate would have it, that monk’s name was Augustus. So the prophecy came true. John did “inherit the mantle of Augustus.”

Reflections of the Vizier

By the time Theodora was through with John, he had lost everything. Even when he was down and out, the empress made sure he continued to suffer. In contrast, John’s plan against Theodora proved to be amateurish and lacking in detail. He did not plan through until the end or prepare for other possibilities. His fatal mistake was underestimating the enmity of the empress. In the battle of intrigue and politics, John was simply out of his depth against Theodora.

References

Bridge, Anthony. Theodora: Portrait in a Byzantine Landscape. Chicago: Academy Chicago Publishers, 1993.

Norwich, John Julius. Byzantium: The Early Centuries. England: Penguin Books, 1990.

Related posts:

1. How John the Cappadocian Became Theodora’s Enemy
2. How Justinian Changed Theodora’s Life
3. The Early Life of Theodora

The Talent of John the Cappadocian

As Praetorian Prefect of the East, John was highly valued by Justinian for his talent. Although John was uneducated, he was intelligent, lacking in scruples, efficient and energetic. One of John’s tasks was to collect taxes for the imperial treasury. And he proved to be very good at it. John did not fear the poor or the rich. He treated everyone with the same brutality; using torture if need be to get the people to pay their taxes. All of his efforts went into reforming the financial system to make it more efficient in bleeding the people dry. So skilled was John at his job that he became the most hated man in the empire. During the Nika Riots, the people forced Justinian to remove him from office. But even though John had nearly cost him his throne, Justinian could not do without his help.

After he suppressed the Nika Riots, Justinian reinstated John at the end of 532. He even made him a Consul and a Patrician as a sign of great favour. The reason for this favour was the many costly wars that Justinian engaged in. To fund his wars in North Africa and Italy, Justinian needed to raise a lot of money. Here, John would repay his master’s trust fully by collecting taxes and cutting costs wherever he could.

The Nature of John the Cappadocian

Rising from rags to riches, John was crude and overbearing in his manner. So proud was John of his worldly success, especially after he became a Consul and a Patrician, that he flaunted his wealth at every opportunity. He had no respect for anyone and even behaved haughtily in the presence of the Empress Theodora. Although she disliked him from the start, she could not act against him since her husband valued him so highly. More importantly, John had given her no cause to do so. Personal feelings aside, Theodora knew that John was an asset to her husband so she held her tongue.

The Shocking Lifestyle of John the Cappadocian

John was no doubt odious in carrying out his job. But, his private lifestyle was downright shocking. He had a great fondness for food and wine, often indulging himself to excess. Unable to restrain his cravings, he would usually gorge himself on delicacies until he was ill for many days. When it came to drinking, there were few evenings that John went to bed sober.

But that was not all. John also had insatiable carnal desires. He loved beautiful women and often indulged in wild orgies with them. Many, lured by his riches, gave themselves willingly. Others he took by force since no one could stop him. Whenever John travelled, his servants carried him on a litter. Accompanying him was a whole procession of beautiful women in such sheer dresses that, they were as good as naked in full public view. Even the jaded people of Constantinople flinched at such a blatant display of lecherousness. The debauched and vulgar lifestyle of John did little to endear him to anyone. But as long as he had the favour of his master, no one could touch him.

The Prophecy

John also had another quirk. He had a great fondness for esoteric knowledge. He believed in omens and had some experience with magic. But the thing that intrigued him the most was divination. John never got tired of seeking out new diviners to foretell his future. Due to his reputation, all manner of diviners and charlatans approached him to earn a quick buck.

The turning point came when one diviner told John that it was his destiny to “inherit the mantle of Augustus.” Since Augustus was another term for emperor, John believed that it was his destiny to ascend the throne. This idea took root in his mind and soon he became obsessed with fulfilling that destiny. He saw no reason to doubt it. By his own hand, he had obtained great power and prestige. If the empire were his to rule, he would achieve even more than he already had.

Buying the Way to the Throne

Even though it was his destiny to obtain the throne, John knew it would not be easy. He knew that the road to supreme power was fraught with danger. If he did not prepare for that danger, he could never hope to realize his ambition. After swearing the diviner to secrecy, John decided upon a two-prong approach. Firstly, he formed a political party loyal to him and used his great wealth to purchase support. Secondly, he visited as many provinces as he could to win the support of the people as well. As an incentive, he remitted the taxes of the people who chose to support him. Thus far, John’s campaigns for support bore some fruit due to his great wealth. But until the time was right, he wisely refrained from telling his supporters his true aims.

The Folly of John the Cappadocian

Things seemed to be going as planned. But, John knew he face a major obstacle, the intelligent and powerful Theodora. She would never let him replace Justinian. Well aware of the threat she posed, John decided to remove the source of her power; the love and trust that Justinian had for her. If he could do so, Theodora would no longer concern him. Naively, John assumed that all he needed to do was to spread some nasty rumours about her. In doing so, he grossly misjudged Justinian’s love for her. More importantly, he underestimated Theodora’s influence and ability to retaliate. For years, she had put up with this gross excuse for a human being. But now that he was a threat to her and her husband, she would do so no longer.

Reflections of the Vizier

Theodora was not alone in her dislike of John and his crude ways. But since he was an asset to her husband, she had little cause to move against him. When John tried to sow dissension between her and her husband, his actions aroused the empress’s notice. When she learned that he was eyeing the throne, John’s fate was sealed. He was no longer an asset but a threat. Theodora was now his mortal enemy and would spare no effort in seeing to his destruction.

References

Bridge, Anthony. Theodora: Portrait in a Byzantine Landscape. Chicago: Academy Chicago Publishers, 1993.

Norwich, John Julius. Byzantium: The Early Centuries. England: Penguin Books, 1990.

Related posts:

1. How Theodora Destroyed John the Cappadocian
2. How Theodora Championed the Rights of Women
3. How Theodora Ruled the Empire