The Creation of Eunuchs

The Romans viewed castration as a shameful thing. No free and self-respecting Roman citizen would dream of turning into a eunuch. As such, they forbade castration from taking place within the empire. Thus, in the early days of the Roman Empire, castration took place at the borders instead. Foreign captives or slaves would have their testicles and penises surgically removed before traders brought them into the empire to sell as eunuchs. In the 6th century, Procopius informs us that many eunuchs came from Abasgia in the Caucasus. But that was not the only region where eunuchs came from. There were also Arabs, Balkans and even Scythians eunuchs.

With the rise of Islam, slave markets began to spring up in Rome, Venice and Spain. But the demand for eunuchs was so great that these markets were not enough. As the world began to change, the Byzantine Greeks realized that a career as a eunuch had many benefits. To obtain the power and prestige that eunuchs had for their families, the Greeks castrated their younger sons to prepare them for careers as eunuchs. In the past, the Romans frowned on castration. But as the Byzantine Empire evolved, many Greek-speaking eunuchs came from the local province of Paphlagonia.

Two Types of Eunuchs

There were two types of eunuchs. The first type underwent the procedure before they reached puberty. Due to a lack of testosterone, these eunuchs had longer limbs and softer bones than a normal male. They also had a unique and flexible voice that led many to become respected singers in the choir. The second type underwent the procedure after puberty. These eunuchs would retain their defining male characteristics.

Eunuchs in the Early Roman Empire

Eunuchs were vital to the running of the empire. Despite the shameful view that the Romans had of eunuchs, they still needed their services. In fact, they needed a ready source of eunuchs to draw from. While a Roman would not dream of becoming a eunuch, it was permissible for a non-Roman to be a one. Even so, they could not just take any non-Roman and castrate him. There was however a ready source of non-Romans who could be eunuchs. They were the slaves or prisoners of war. As these people had little rights, the Romans had no qualms about having these men castrated to serve as eunuchs.

Even in the 6th century, the view towards eunuchs had not changed much. The Emperor Justinian forbade castration to take place within his domains. But this did not eliminate the need for eunuchs; it only caused the procedure to take place outside of the empire. After the operation, the traders continued to bring in the newly formed eunuchs to sell as slaves in the market.

Eunuchs in the Byzantine Empire

The rise of Islam however, caused the state of affairs to change. As the power of the new Caliphate grew, it led to a greater demand for eunuchs that outstripped the ready supply. New slave markets began to flourish in Rome and Venice as the Caliphate controlled the markets in the East. Even so, the demand was far too great. Byzantium had to look for new sources of eunuchs instead of the usual slaves and captives.

During this time, being a eunuch became less of a taboo for the Byzantines. The common people were well aware that eunuchs held many key positions in the empire that gave them great power. Powerful eunuchs could use their influence to better the lot of their families. Since there was a demand for eunuchs, the local Greeks were now willing to castrate their younger sons to meet this need. These Greek-speaking eunuchs would enter the Great Palace or the Church in the hopes of carving out a lucrative career. If they made it, they could advance the standing of their family as well.

Castration as Punishment

Not all eunuchs were slaves, captives or power-hungry locals. Failed usurpers, rebels or deposed emperors could also end up as eunuchs. The Byzantines expected their emperors to produce heirs to carry on their dynasty. Since castration made this impossible, reigning emperors could get rid of their rivals by castrating them and their sons. Doing so removed potential threats to the throne. Although castration may seem barbaric by the standards today, the Byzantines viewed it as more humane than death.

Reflections of the Vizier

It is interesting to see how the view of eunuchs evolved in Byzantium. What was once shameful to the Romans became acceptable to the Byzantines. Byzantium saw itself as the continuation of the Roman Empire. In fact, they referred to themselves as Romans. But in reality, they were distinct in many ways. The view of and the role that the eunuch played in Byzantium is one major difference.

Reference

Herrin, Judith. Byzantium: The Surprising Life of a Medieval Empire. England: Penguin Books, 2008.

Rautman, Marcus. Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire (The Greenwood Press Daily Life Through History Series). Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2006.

Related posts:

1. The Vital Roles of Eunuchs in Byzantium
2. 5 Things You Did Not Know About Byzantine Eunuchs

The Nature of Eunuchs

The Byzantines viewed eunuchs with a mixture of feelings. On the one hand, eunuchs had an instability that made them unpredictable. On the other hand, eunuchs were also loyal, discerning and industrious which made them highly valued. It was because of their nature that eunuchs held important posts and managed palace affairs. But their strange manner and esoteric knowledge of palace routines, caused people to believe that some eunuchs possessed arcane talents.

Eunuch as Gifts

Liutprand, Bishop of Cremona, visited the Byzantine Empire on a diplomatic mission in 949. But before he arrived, he realized that he did not have acceptable gifts to present. Luckily, he recalled the advice of his father and stepfather. Both men had been to Byzantium on as diplomatic envoys before. They told him that eunuchs made good gifts since the emperor valued them highly. Thus, Liutprand purchased some eunuchs with a few other gifts and received a warm welcome at Constantinople.

Eunuchs and Monasteries

It was common for eunuchs to become monks. But some monasteries feared eunuchs so greatly that they banned them from entering. The reason for this was the fear that eunuchs might arouse desire in the other monks. Rather than allow temptation to cause the monks to stray, some monasteries chose to ban eunuchs.

The De Facto Eunuch Ruler

A eunuch could not take the throne for himself because he could not produce an heir. But, there was nothing to stop him from becoming the de facto ruler of the empire. One such eunuch was Basil Lekapenos, the bastard son of the Emperor Romanos I. During his career, he served four emperors and wielded great power. During the first decade of the Emperor Basil II’s reign, the eunuch Basil effectively ruled the empire on behalf of his young charge. He was so rich and powerful that he could afford to become a patron of the arts.

The Eunuch Patriarch who was the Son of the Emperor

The Emperor Romanos I castrated his son Theophylact and made him Patriarch of Constantinople on 2 February 933. This gave him control over the Church. As Patriarch, Theophylact bowed to his father’s wishes. He ensured that the Church remained united so that his father could focus his energies on the rest of the empire. Everyone knew that the Patriarch loved his huge stable of horses more than his flock. He would gladly forgo the Divine Liturgy to watch his favourite mare give birth. Ironically, the Patriarch died after a nasty fall from his horse in 956.

References

Herrin, Judith. Byzantium: The Surprising Life of a Medieval Empire. England: Penguin Books, 2008.

Rautman, Marcus. Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire (The Greenwood Press Daily Life Through History Series). Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2006.

Related posts:

1. The Vital Roles of Eunuchs in Byzantium
2. Becoming a Eunuch in Byzantium

Eunuchs and Byzantine society

The Orthodox worldview was strict and hierarchical. It had clearly defined roles for all members of Byzantine society. Men and women, emperor and subjects, patriarch and laity all had expectations to fulfil. The rigid nature of the system needed a special class of people to act as intermediaries. The answer lay in the use of eunuchs.

A eunuch was neither male nor female. They were in effect a third sex. As such, conventional gender roles did not apply to them. This allowed eunuchs to serve in a variety of positions in the Byzantine world. Eunuchs could be teachers, doctors, actors, singers and even prostitutes.

Eunuchs and Rich Households

As slaves or servants in rich households, eunuchs might end up waiting on their mistresses. The master of the house felt safe in leaving his wife in the hands of eunuchs because they could not defile her in any way. Eunuchs therefore became responsible for the safety of their mistresses and attended to their demands. Learned eunuchs could also become tutors to children in rich households. They might oversee the education and upbringing of their young masters and mistresses. Finally, eunuchs could also serve as intermediaries for their masters.

Eunuchs and the Imperial Court

In the imperial court, eunuchs had many chances to advance in station. As eunuchs could not father children, they could not take the throne for themselves. Thus, the court created many key posts for eunuchs due to their perceived loyalty to the imperial household. Firstly, the imperial household relied on eunuchs to look after them. This involved personal security, counsel, daily needs, education of royal children and acting as intermediaries. Secondly, eunuchs took care of the ceremonials and etiquette that were vital to the court. Lastly, experienced eunuchs trained new arrivals in the ways of the court to ensure the smooth transition of duties in the future.

Eunuchs who were trusted with such responsibilities could wield great power and influence. Naturally, this power tempted many people and families. The more enterprising ones would castrate their younger son in the hopes that he would have a successful career in the palace. It was easy for a high-ranking eunuch to amass a fortune. Many of these rich eunuchs used their vast wealth to become patrons of the arts.

Eunuchs and the Army

Eunuchs also served in the army or as imperial guards. There was no discrimination in this area and eunuchs excelled on the battlefield as well as any normal male. Narses was one of the most famous eunuchs to hold military command. In fact, many emperors felt safe in giving command of the army to eunuchs because they could not seize the throne for themselves. Many emperors believed that this fact made the eunuchs more trustworthy and loyal to them.

Eunuchs and the Church

The early Church forbade castration and eunuchs from joining the clergy. They expected men to control their urges and lusts if they wanted to pursue a career in the Church. But the Byzantine Church welcomed eunuchs into the clergy. They also allowed eunuchs to become monks. So open was the Byzantine Church to eunuchs that they even allowed them to become the patriarch of Constantinople. This was the highest position in the clergy. But that was not all. Eunuchs could also become saints, so noted for their great holiness.

Eunuchs and the Choir

A particular type of eunuch, known as castrati, played a prominent role in the choir. As castrati, young boys underwent castration before they reached puberty. This caused their voice to develop a unique vocal range. Due to a lack of testosterone, the castrati also grew differently from normal males. Their body frame, limbs and bones were softer and longer. With proper training, they gained great lungpower that made them singing sensations. The castrati often performed at the imperial court and major churches due to their great popularity.

Eunuchs and Sex

There were many men in Byzantine society who prized their eunuch slaves as sexual objects. Eunuchs who underwent castration before they reached puberty maintained their youthful boyish image that appealed to men. Despite their lack, eunuchs also had their own sexual urges as well. Sex for eunuchs involved sodomy, which the Church frowned upon. Many priests urged the eunuchs to resist sodomy to save their souls. But since the eunuchs were at the mercy of their masters, they could not resist without facing the consequences. Some monasteries also banned eunuchs. They feared that the beauty of the eunuchs would drive the other monks to distraction.

Reflections of the Vizier

Thus far, I have been mainly interested in Byzantine emperors and the wars of the empire. I always knew that Byzantium employed eunuchs. But I never knew how integrated they were in society. It is just fascinating to learn how dependent Byzantium was on eunuchs to keep it going. Having read about the vital roles that eunuchs played has given me a deeper appreciation of Byzantium.

Reference

Herrin, Judith. Byzantium: The Surprising Life of a Medieval Empire. England: Penguin Books, 2008.

Rautman, Marcus. Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire (The Greenwood Press Daily Life Through History Series). Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2006.

Related posts:

1. 5 Things You Did Not Know About Byzantine Eunuchs
2. Becoming a Eunuch in Byzantium

1st Arab Siege of Constantinople (674-678)

The Arabs lay siege to Constantinople, the capital and heart of the Byzantine Empire, in 674. Thus far, they had swept away the Byzantine troops, forcing them back to the capital to make their last stand. But things did not go as planned. The Arabs could not breach the famous land walls, so they focused their attacks on the sea walls with their navy. The Arab blockade cut off supplies to the capital and slowly starved the defenders.

For five years, the empire fought for its life. Thankfully, Kallinikos, a military engineer, arrived in the empire just before the siege. He had discovered the secret of Greek fire and he shared it with the Byzantines. This secret gave the Byzantine navy the edge they needed to defeat the Arab navy repeatedly. In 678, the Arabs finally accepted defeat and lifted the siege. But as they made their way home, the Arab navy ran into a severe storm, suffering further loss and damage as a result.

2nd Arab Siege of Constantinople (717-718)

In 717, Arab forces once again pushed the Byzantines right back to Constantinople and lay siege to it. This time the Arabs attacked by land and sea. This pincer attack forced the defenders to divide themselves to man both the land and sea walls. Despite the dire circumstances, their Emperor Leo III led the defence with a sure hand.

The wily monarch used Greek fire to wreck havoc on the Arab fleet while making sure the Arab army could not breach the land walls. In the meantime, he negotiated with the Bulgarians and got them to smash the Arab army from the rear. The Bulgarians scattered the surprised Arab troops who fled homewards. Meanwhile, the Arab navy, crippled by Greek fire, also lifted the siege and returned home. Déjà vu occurred when the Arab navy ran into a storm that destroyed most of the fleet.

Civil War between Michael II and Thomas the Slav (821-824)

Michael II and Thomas the Slav fought one of the most severe civil wars in the history of the empire. At the start, Thomas controlled most of the empire and its forces. Meanwhile, Michael held control over the capital and a few outlying regions. To reign as emperor, Thomas had to control Constantinople. Once again, the capital came under siege from superior numbers by land and sea in 821.

While holding on to his capital, Michael got his navy to whittle down the navy of Thomas with Greek fire. This helped to relieve the pressure placed on the sea walls and allow supplies to reach the city. Taking a page from the book of Leo III, Michael sought and received Bulgarian aid. The Bulgarians forced Thomas to lift the siege and inflicted heavy losses on him. This allowed Michael to defeat and mop up the remains of Thomas’ forces, uniting the empire once more.

Rus-Byzantine War (941)

Greek fire saw action against the sea-faring Rus in 941. Igor, the Prince of Rus, led 1,000 ships southwards to raid the Byzantine Empire. But as luck would have it, the Byzantine army and navy were not at Constantinople. Due to the grave danger, the Emperor Romanus gave orders for both the army and navy to return at once. In the meantime, he salvaged fifteen old ships from the scrap yard and loaded them with Greek fire. Placing this fleet under the command of Theophanes, the emperor ordered him to buy time and hold off the Rus.

Theophanes set off at once to prevent the Rus from sailing through the Bosphorus. By positioning his fleet at the northern opening of the Bosphorus, he clashed with the Rus on June 11. As the Greek fire ravaged the front of his fleet, Igor ordered the rest of his ships to disembark at Bithynia where they plundered the land. Soon, the Byzantine army arrived to drive them back to their ships. As the Rus tried to flee for home, they ran straight into the Byzantine navy. This time, the Byzantines set ablaze the Rus fleet and destroyed it. Only a handful of survivors managed to escape.

Reflections of the Vizier

Greek fire did not win battles for the empire by itself. It was a potent but not an all-powerful weapon. This meant that it played its part in the overall strategy to defeat the enemy. This could mean buying time for reinforcements or whittling down enemy forces for the final blow. Used skilfully at the right moments by wise leaders, Greek fire was able to turn the tide of battle for the Byzantines. The examples above are ample proof of how Greek fire made a difference.

Reference

Herrin, Judith. Byzantium: The Surprising Life of a Medieval Empire. England: Penguin Books, 2008.

Norwich, John Julius. Byzantium: The Early Centuries. England: Penguin Books, 1990.

Norwich, John Julius. Byzantium (II): The Apogee. England: Penguin Books, 1993.

Related posts:

1. Greek Fire: The Byzantine Secret Weapon

Byzantium fought for its very survival throughout its existence. Often, the empire faced enemies who were superior in military and economic might. Despite these odds, Byzantium always managed to survive. One of the main reasons for its survival was the secret weapon: Greek fire. Used skilfully by its leaders, Byzantium managed to come back repeatedly from the brink of disaster. Read on to learn about Greek fire.

What was Greek Fire?

Greek fire was a sticky liquid flame used in land battles during sieges and naval battles. The soldiers would use a firing tube to spray the liquid that would engulf their target in flames. A loud noise that sounded like a roar and lots of smoke accompanied the discharge of Greek fire. To enhance the effect, the Byzantines installed figureheads of animals like lions on their ships. Thus in naval combat, it would seem as if the animals were spewing fire from their mouths. Unsuspecting and superstitious enemies would greatly fear the fire, as they had never seen such a spectacle before.

Origins of Greek Fire

Historical records first mention Greek fire in 678. A story credits Kallinikos, a military engineer from Syria, as the creator of Greek fire. After he had found the secret, he brought it to Byzantium and shared it with the empire. The secret could not have come at a better time as Constantinople was holding off an Arab siege. The soldiers put the Greek fire to good use when they drove off an Arab naval attack with it.

Alternatively, the leading alchemists and chemists in the capital could have discovered Greek fire. During their research of the classical texts on chemistry and physics, they could have chanced upon the composition of Greek fire. Whatever the case, the Byzantines soon got the formula right. From there, they went on to use Greek fire with lethal effect against their foes.

Composition and Usage

The exact Byzantine formula of Greek fire has been lost. But many historians believed it contained the following ingredients: crude oil, bitumen, naphtha, resin and sulphur. Due to the dangers involved, the soldiers had to heat the mixture with great care first. Then they sprayed it through the firing tube with a siphon and ignited the flames. But this was not the only way to use Greek fire. It could also be stored in ceramic pots and thrown like grenades. The use of Greek fire required caution and technical skill that selected soldiers specially trained in.

State Secret

This potent weapon gave the Byzantines an edge over their enemies in warfare. It also had a psychological effect on foes that had never seen such a spectacle. As the fire was hard to extinguish, it struck fear in their hearts of the enemies and weakened their resolve. Due to its great importance, Greek fire was a closely guarded secret of the empire. No foreigner could expect to gain this knowledge from the Byzantines. Although many nations sought the secret of Greek fire in diplomatic exchanges, the Byzantines never shared this knowledge. Even so, the Arabs managed to create their own version of Greek fire.

Safety Measures

Greek fire was so potent that it could even burn on water. Once Greek fire set its target ablaze, it was very hard to extinguish. Since the fire did not differentiate friend from foe, Byzantine troops took several safety measures to protect themselves. Firstly, the soldiers and marines who handled Greek fire wore fireproof leather armour. Secondly, the ships and equipment used a unique mixture of vinegar, alum and talc to remain fireproof. Thirdly, city defences and buildings also received treatment that protected them from fire attacks.

Reflections of the Vizier

Greek fire was clearly a potent but double-edged weapon. Used correctly, the Byzantines managed to turn the tide of many battles with it. But if they were not careful, they could also end up burning their own troops with the flames. Even so, Greek fire was not a super weapon that made the Byzantines invincible. It had limited range that made it easy for enemies to work around once they got used to it. Other civilizations like the Arabs also created their own form of Greek fire. Although Greek fire was useful, it was merely one reason that the Byzantines managed to endure for a thousand years.

Reference

Herrin, Judith. Byzantium: The Surprising Life of a Medieval Empire. England: Penguin Books, 2008.

Rautman, Marcus. Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire (The Greenwood Press Daily Life Through History Series). Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2006.

Related posts:

1. Battles Where Greek Fire Made a Difference

At last, Neo Byzantium has its first Byzantine Empire themed wallpaper; Basil II. The credit for this wallpaper goes to my talented friend and collaborator, Haefen Hassinger. She took the idea I had and breathed life into it in a way that exceeded my expectations. I believe a short explanation of how the wallpaper came to be will add more meaning to it.

How the Basil II wallpaper was created

I have always been a fan of wallpapers and heroes; specifically wallpapers about my heroes. Having them on my desktop reminded me of their qualities and made for some good eye candy. From the very inception of Neo Byzantium, I dreamed of creating wallpapers about the Byzantine Empire. But there was a slight problem however; I couldn’t draw to save my life.

By chance however, I stumbled upon Haefen’s website shortly after I launched Neo Byzantium. As stated in my earlier review, I was very impressed by her talents. It also helped that we shared a common interest in the Byzantine Empire. Luckily for me, we hit it off and the rest is history in the making.

The subject of the wallpaper came to me one day. As a very successful Byzantine emperor, Basil II brought the empire to renewed heights of power and glory during his reign from 976 to 1025. It is true that he was lucky to build upon the foundations left by his predecessors. But there is no denying the determination, dedication and ability of this formidable emperor. Basil’s inspiring quality and greatness made him an ideal subject for the wallpaper.

When I told Haefen about Basil II, she liked my idea and agreed to come up with the wallpaper. I personally like her attention to detail for Basil. I love how Haefen has included Basil’s long side whiskers. These side whiskers were one of Basil’s trademarks because he loved to twirl them when he was in deep thought or angry. At least now we know how he might have grown them. The emperor also spent a lot of time in armour because he was involved in almost constant wars throughout his reign. Therefore, it is fitting that he is depicted wearing lamellar armour. Finally, the destruction in the background is a perfect for this soldier emperor who only lost one battle.

Reflections of the Vizier

That basically sums up the story of Neo Byzantium’s first wallpaper. But this will hopefully not be the last. Meanwhile I hope everyone enjoys having Basil II on your desktop. You can download the wallpaper here.

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No related posts.

Wikipedia on Byzantine Empire: This article gives an overview of the 1,000 year history of the empire. I also enjoy the many links within the article to other related subjects that catch my eye. Some of these subjects include emperors, major battles and events and Byzantine military units.

Wikipedia on Byzantine Themes: Byzantium lost large pieces of territories to the Muslim expansion. For the security of the empire, the remaining domains became themes. Themes were the administrative districts that replaced the provincial system from the time of Diocletian and Constantine I.

Wikipedia on Byzantine Army: An indispensible part of Byzantium’s struggle to survive, the Byzantine army evolved through the centuries. This article gives an overview of that evolution.

Wikipedia on Byzantine Navy: The Byzantine navy also played a crucial role in the defence of the empire. This article has a lot of information about the various aspects of the navy. Interestingly, it mentions how Byzantium’s fortunes rose and fell with its control of the sea.

Wikipedia on Walls of Constantinople: For over 1,000 years, the Walls of Constantinople defended the imperial capital from continuous attacks. Its elaborate and complex defensive system enabled it to withstand repeated sieges. But in 1453, the Ottomans finally breached the walls with gunpowder.

Wikipedia on Castles: Throughout its existence, the Byzantine Empire struggled to survive. Its vast wealth and strategic location invited attacks from all sides. As such, defensive fortifications, such as castles, were vitally important to the survival of Byzantium. Although this article is about castles in general, it helps to shed some light on what life might have been like for the Byzantines.

Wikipedia on Eastern Orthodox Church: Christianity played a large part in shaping the Byzantine Empire. To gain an appreciation of the Byzantines, we have to understand their religious views. This article provides that understanding.

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1. Why Khusrau Chose to Attack the Byzantine Empire